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In this chapter we look at scientific psychology. We start by thinking about the ways in which we come to know things, and consider science to be a ‘way of knowing’ with particular strengths. We look at how views of science developed over time, and what the principles and assumptions underlying scientific psychology are. We then look at how psychology can be carried out scientifically, and evaluate whether it can be seen as a science. Following this, we consider a range of issues in scientific psychology, including threats to the validity of psychology research and ethical issues. We conclude by thinking about some alternatives to scientific psychology.

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In this chapter, we look at the problem of bias in psychology. While psychology claims to be an objective, value-free science, we’ll see that at various points it has produced theories that support inequality. We consider four main areas of bias; these include ethnocentrism (culture bias), androcentrism (pro-male bias) and racism, and also biases arising from methodology. These are particularly visible examples of bias, but the list isn’t exhaustive. We could also have covered homophobia (anti-homosexuality bias) and ageism, for example, but unfortunately space doesn’t allow full coverage. Having looked at these areas of bias, we then look at the implications of bias for psychology’s claims to objectivity. We conclude by considering some ways that the problem of bias can be tackled.

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This chapter introduces three key debates in psychology that shape the kinds of approaches psychologists use to understand human nature. The chapter is divided into four main sections. It begins with an overview of how issues arise in psychology and the ways in which psychologists choose a position in debates. It then goes on to look at reductionism and its value, free will and determinism, and the nature–nurture debate. These topics have been chosen because they affect the fundamental purposes and methods of psychology, and psychologists’ views of human nature. Understanding the nature of these debates, and where different psychologists stand in regard to them, is critical for evaluating the theories in psychology that we’ll see later in the book. In addition, understanding the debates will help us to evaluate the claims about psychology that are made in everyday life.

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In this chapter you will be introduced to the nervous system and its numerous divisions. The focus will then move to the brain, looking first at large structures and then at small units of activity. In the second part of the chapter you will be introduced to neural communication and how the action of drugs can influence this process. Finally we look at the action of hormones as communicators within the body.

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In the first two sections of this chapter we will address the two dominant theories of learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning. The application of associative learning theories illustrates how experience can influence biological responses. In the third section of this chapter we will look at cognitive learning. In the final section, the possible underlying neural mechanisms of learning are addressed.

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Why do we eat, drink and sometimes be merry? This chapter addresses the biological basis of three highly motivated behaviours. The first section addresses the possible neural mechanisms underlying addiction. The actions of two illegal drugs, cocaine and amphetamine, and the legal drug nicotine are explored. The action of these, and other drugs, are placed within the context of the general theories of addiction. Eating is a behaviour that has generated a great deal of interest, especially because of the increasing prevalence of eating disorders. The brain mechanisms involved in eating are investigated, with particular emphasis on the hypothalamus. Drinking is an essential behaviour and its neural substrates are described. The motivation to drink is important for our survival and, again, the brain is central to this behaviour.

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Our emotions make life a colourful experience. This chapter investigates the neural mechanisms that underlie our emotions – for example, the amygdala and fear.

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In this chapter you will be introduced to the mechanics of the sensory systems, such as the eye, the ear and the nose. The route a perceptual signal takes once it has been detected by the senses is further described, with all culminating in the cortex. In the second part of the chapter we will look at motor control and response output.

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The aim of this chapter is to provide you with a basic introduction to the various themes and issues that are important for the study of social psychological processes. Our starting point will be to look at how social psychology has been defined and the historical basis to these definitions. The next part of the chapter focuses on two approaches that social psychologists take in their studies. The first is the experimental approach. We shall see that the main proponents of this approach are those who come from a social cognition perspective. The second approach is called critical social psychology; we shall focus on one perspective – social constructionism – from this school. We then move on to study the types of experimental and nonexperimental research methods and strategies that social psychologists use, and the ethical considerations that this work involves.

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The aim of this chapter is to present you with an overview of attitudes, persuasion processes and attitude change. Initially, we will explore how the term ‘attitude’ has been defined, what functions attitudes serve, how attitudes are structured, how they develop and how we measure them. We then move on to look at the relationship between attitudes and behaviour, and at what psychologists know about how attitudes change. Finally, we look at how people may be persuaded to change their attitudes and, theoretically, their behaviour.

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The aim of this chapter is to present you with an introduction to many of the theories and models psychologists have developed to explain how people attribute behavioural outcomes to different types of causes. We will explore the nature of the attribution process by looking at a number of different models. We will focus on what attributions ‘look like’ and the circumstances that lead to different kinds of attributions. The second part of the chapter will focus on various errors and biases that result from the attribution process.

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The aim of this chapter is to provide you with an overview of some of the theories and evidence that social psychologists have used to study impression formation and social interaction. The chapter will begin with a section on how we form impressions of others and also why we attempt to manage the impressions others form of us. The second part of the chapter will look at non-verbal communication in social interaction. Finally, we will move on to look at a few examples of social behaviour including attraction, aggression and helping.

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This chapter provides an introduction to some of the theories and evidence that social psychologists have used to study social influence and other group processes. We begin by identifying different types of groups and then move on to research that has been used to understand how groups can influence people to change their attitudes, beliefs and behaviours. The second part of the chapter looks at work on how a person’s performance can be influenced by other people watching them. The third part looks at group decision-making, group performance and what happens when poor decisions are made. We then turn to conditions when people behave in ways they normally would not. For instance, we will look at the conditions under which people obey authority. The role of leaders will also be discussed in terms of group performance. Finally, we study how groups behave towards one another, with special reference to conflict and discriminatory behaviour.

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The main function of this chapter is to describe what emotions are, what their function is and how they are researched. This chapter will outline the contribution of both physiology and cognition to emotional experience and describe the debate that discusses the importance of these two factors. The chapter also describes how emotions are measured and uses examples such as lie detection, ADHD in children, and temperature and violence, to demonstrate the applied nature of emotional research.

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This chapter will deal with motivation and the 'whys' of behaviour. We will consider the major theories of motivation in attempting to evaluate what motivates us. The chapter is divided into three sections. The first considers biology as a motivational force. The second evaluates the role of our cognitive and mental processes in deciding what does and what does not motivate us. Lastly, we consider other motivational forces such as sexual motivation, sensation-seeking and the need for achievement. We will also look at hunger and thirst as forms of motivation. The chapter will also differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors.

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This chapter is divided into several sections. The first begins with a discussion of what we understand by the concept of self, its function and how it develops. We will then focus on how we gather and organise information about ourselves from both our own behaviour and how we are treated by others around us. We will also describe some of the strategies we deploy as defence mechanisms when the concept of our identity comes under threat. We will then consider how the social groups to which we belong and the role of culture also play vital roles in the understanding of who we are. Lastly, we will discuss what happens when we lose our way and become confused about who we are and what we represent.

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This chapter discusses the psychological factors that contribute to our personalities. We will consider several important questions about the nature and development of your personality characteristics in relation to the main theoretical paradigms in this field. Consideration will be given to the environmental, cognitive and biological factors that contribute to the shaping of our personalities. We will also investigate personality in terms of gender difference, stability over the life span and the influence of motivational forces upon it.

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This chapter is divided into three parts. The first deals with the history of intelligence research and the issue of defining it as a psychological concept. The second part considers whether intelligence is a single ability or made up of smaller more specific intellectual skills. Lastly, we will discuss the influence of heredity and biological factors on intelligence. Throughout this chapter we will aim to evaluate the main theories of intelligence and their contribution to our understanding of human intellect. We will consider how social influences might impact on intellectual development and review the research on racial and gender aspects of intelligence.

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This chapter is divided into three sections. The first looks at the different types of psychometric tests. Attention will be given to the different types of intelligence and personality tests. The second section covers the main underlying principles of psychometric tests, and considers such things as standardisation, reliability and validity. The final section focuses on the limitations and criticisms of the construction and use of psychometric tests. The chapter as a whole aims to describe the main types of psychometric tests and the principles that guide them. It also seeks to show examples of how these tests have been employed within the various disciplines of psychology.

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This chapter provides a necessary introduction to clinical and abnormal psychology, and is concerned with how we identify, define and classify psychopathology and psychological disorders. The chapter is divided into three main sections covering the concept of madness (i.e. how we try to explain mental illness), definitions of abnormality and the classification of psychological disorders. Finally, the chapter briefly discusses what it means to have good psychological health.

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This chapter describes some of the main psychological disorders, and discusses contemporary accounts of their causes (aetiology). It is divided into six main sections covering anxiety disorders, mood disorders, schizophrenia, personality disorders, eating disorders, and disorders of childhood and adolescence. These topics have been chosen because they represent some of the most prevalent of psychological disorders (e.g. depression, anxiety disorders and schizophrenia), they consist of some of the most thoroughly researched disorders where our understanding of their causes has become relatively well developed (e.g. schizophrenia, anxiety disorders), and they also represent disorders that are of contemporary interest, either because of media interest (e.g. eating disorders) or because they give the reader an insight into broader ethical and political issues related to psychopathology (e.g. PTSD, anti-social personality disorder).

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This chapter describes a broad range of therapies and treatments that have been developed to treat psychological disorders and psychological problems. The treatments discussed cover biological treatments (such as drug-based treatments) and the major psychotherapies that have been developed from a range of different theoretical perspectives (e.g. psychoanalysis, humanistic therapies, behaviour therapies and cognitive therapies). Each section introduces the reader to the main principles on which these therapies are based. Finally, this chapter discusses methods for assessing the effectiveness of therapies.

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This chapter introduces the reader to the relatively new area of health psychology. It begins by describing the topics and activities that make up health psychology, and some of the aims that health psychology has set itself in terms of understanding and changing health-related behaviour. The chapter is then divided into three broad areas, and gives the reader a flavour of how psychological factors play an important role in (i) predicting health-related behaviours, (ii) understanding how people interact with healthcare professionals, and comply with their advice, and (iii) understanding physical illness.

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The question on most psychology students' lips as they discover that they have to do two years of research methods is '‘Why do we need research methods?' On the face of it, it might seem that we just like torturing psychology students by making them learn lots of complicated statistics and such like. Actually, that’s not the reason: most of us are nice really. The reason is that psychology is a scientific discipline that tries to understand human behaviour by using research to test and develop ideas about what drives our thoughts and behaviours. This chapter attempts to describe the research process in general terms, in order to give you some background to why we need research methods, and to discuss the important issues that we need to consider when conducting psychological research. We start by looking at how theories and research are intrinsically linked, before changing our focus to how we can test theories (and why it’s important to measure things). We then look at how we can try to identify cause and effect relationships, and how we analyse data.

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In the last chapter we saw the importance of collecting data to inform theories and to try to explain human behaviour. This chapter looks at how we conduct research. We begin by looking at a very important aspect of research: ethics. We overview some important issues to consider in conducting ethical research, such as informing people about what you’re doing, deceiving people, debriefing participants, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw from the experiment. We then turn our attention to experimental designs. We learnt a bit about cause and effect in the previous chapter and we will build on this to find out why control conditions and randomisation are important in experimental research. We then look at different ways to measure and manipulate variables, and overview some commonly used experimental designs. After that, we turn our attention to non-experimental designs before considering how we actually find people to test.

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Imagine you have just collected your first set of data. What on earth are you going to do with it? This chapter explains the basics of summarising and presenting your data. To begin with we look at histograms, which are a way of graphing raw data to see the distribution of scores. We’ll discover some of the properties of histograms and find out about a special kind of distribution known as the normal distribution. It’s important that, as a scientist, you summarise your data so that others can quickly and easily see what you have discovered. This chapter looks at some of the ways we can summarise data both in terms of what a typical score is (the mean, mode and median) and how diverse your scores are (the range, interquartile range and variance). After that, we look at some common ways of graphing these values, in particular bar charts, line charts, boxplots and scatterplots. Finally, we end with a few comments about how not to draw graphs!

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This chapter brings together everything you’ve learnt so far to try to explain how we use statistics to test hypotheses. The first step is to see whether summaries of our data (like the mean) are representative of our population and we can do this using the standard error and confidence intervals. We then look at the rationale behind fitting statistical models to test hypotheses. You will discover that the experimental and null hypothesis can be conceptualised in terms of a statistical model that is fitted to our data. The exact model depends on what data you have and what your hypotheses are but in general terms every model throws out a statistic with known properties. Based on these properties, we can work out whether a value as large as the one we have would be likely if the null hypothesis is true. The final part of the chapter is spent giving you a brief overview of a range of statistical models and giving examples of when they should be used.